Commercial Invoice

Commercial Invoice is a bill for the goods shipped to the buyer. It is the accounting document for seller’s claim on the buyer for goods sold to the buyer. Commercial Invoice would normally contain the following information:

1. Names and addresses of the buyer and the seller
2. Date of invoice, sale contract or firm order, reference number, date and etc
3. Unit prices, if any, final sum claimed, shipment terms
4. Settlement terms viz sight, tenor, DA/DP and etc
5. Shipping marks and numbers
6. Weight/quantity of the goods
7. Name of the vessel, port of embarkation etc

In addition to these particulars, the following details are generally given in the commercial invoice to facilitate customs clearance in the importing country:

1. Country of origin of the goods
2. Ports of loading and discharge
3. Details of freight and insurance charges (where applicable)
4. Commissions payable to an agent
5. Seller’s certification under signature certifying value of goods and relevant particulars to be correct

When an invoice is to be tendered under terms of the LC, care must be taken to comply with the following requirement:

1. Invoice – made out to the seller – beneficiary (exception to transferable LC)
2. Must be addressed to the opener or such other party as specified in the LC
3. Description of goods must exactly correspond with description in the LC
4. Quantity must agree with that stated in the LC – subject to tolerance limits permitted under UCP
5. Price and price basis must be specified and agree with the LC terms
6. Signed, if expressly stated in the LC
7. Identifying marks, numbers, gross/net weight, number of packages etc agree with all other

8. relevant documents e.g. BL, insurance etc
9. Only permitted items of costs included
10. License number etc specified when stipulated
11. Amount should not exceed LC amount subject to the provision of UCP

There are variations of invoices which are used for various purposes either as a substitute or along with commercial invoice. Such widely used documents are:

1. Certified Invoice
2. Legalized Invoice
3. Combined Certificate of value and origin
4. Visaed invoice

Standby LC and Principle of Autonomy

The traditional LC for import and export transaction is issued to provide the exporter with a guarantee of payment when performance has occurred by submitting documents in accordance with the terms and conditions of the LC. However, the standby LC (SBLC) for import and export transaction is issued to provide the exporter with a guarantee which is only activated in the case of non-performance of another pre-arranged activity. The development of SBLC took place in the United States where the banks do not have the power to issue performance bonds and first demand guarantee.

SBLC can be issued in lieu of performance guarantee in construction contracts, as a guarantee to loan repayment or as a guarantee to a seller as a back-up to some other pre-arranged method of finance. In transactions involving the manufacturing and the sale of goods, SBLC can also be used to secure payment of the price; the payment of liquidated damages for faulty performance; and to cover a deposit repayable in the event of the non-performance of the underlying contract. Losses which could be incurred in a take-over of a company and arising from the non-payment of a promissory note, the payment of rental and the payment of an amount can be, likewise, secured by SBLC.

The beneficiary can usually draw under the SBLC on the basis of providing a certificate or statement that a specific agreement has not been complied with. Given that specified documentation is presented, the bank called upon will be required to pay, regardless as to whether or not the applicant of the LC considers he has performed. Just as in the case of commercial LCs, the payment of a SBLC is subject to the tender of a fully complying set of documents by beneficiary.

The autonomy of a SBLC leads to certain problems. As the bank’s undertaking frequently assumes the form of a promise to accept a bill of exchange accompanied by a default certificate or statement, the beneficiary, who executes the two documents, is in a position to abuse the rights conferred on him.

For example, in the case of Intraworld Industries Inc vs Girard Trust Bank, a SBLC was issued by a bank in order to cover annual rentals due under a lease of a hotel. Payment was to be effected against the beneficiaries’ sight draft, accompanied by their written statement confirming the non-payment of the rent. As the account party (the lessee) mismanaged the hotel to such an extent as to seriously damage its international reputation, the beneficiaries cancelled the lease. They made a demand under the SBLC in order to recover an amount of liquidated damages due under the terms of the lease in lieu of rent.

The account party brought an action for an injunction to restrain the bank from paying. He alleged that the beneficiaries’ demand for fraudulent because it did not involved a genuine claim for rent, as represented in the default notice, but a “stipulated penalty”. Dismissing this action, the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania observed that the circumstances which would justify the granting of an injunction were limited to situations of fraud in which the “wrongdoing” of the beneficiary had vitiated the entire transaction.

In another case, Bossier Bank & Trust Company vs Union Planters National Bank, the Circuit Court of Appeals emphasized that an injunction could be granted only if the alleged fraud related to the relationship between the issuing bank and the beneficiary and not the underlying contract between the beneficiary and the account party.

Shipping Guarantee

Shipping Guarantees are issued by banks to enable importing customers to effect clearance of goods in circumstances where the bill of lading covering the cargo has not come forward or may be missing. In doing so, the bank incurs liability in respect of the goods. Also, of course, it may involve loss of control of the goods, the documents for which the bank has been entrusted to handle.

Shipping guarantees are only issued in respect of missing bill of lading where the guarantees relate to documents which are definitely expected to come forward through the bank. In the absence of already approved credit facilities under which a shipping guarantee may be issued, all applications for shipping guarantees are subject to a credit appraisal of the applicant. Where the standing of an applicant does not justify clean credit facilities, a cash margin (normally 100%) is taken. In all cases, it is essential that banks satisfy themselves from appropriate and reliable documentation regarding the value of the cargo prior to the issue of the guarantee. Shipping guarantees may not be issued in respect of cargo under lien to another bank.

Upon clearance of goods, the guarantee must be returned to the issuing bank for cancellation. It should not remain outstanding for more than one month from the date of its issuance. It is customary, where bank would initiate an enquiry into the reason for its non-return immediately after expiry date of the guarantee.

Proforma Invoice

Proforma Invoice is a form of quotation by the seller given to a potential buyer. It is identical to a commercial invoice in appearance except that words ‘Proforma Invoice’ prominently appear on it.

Proforma invoice is used as an invitation to the buyer to place a firm order based on prices quoted in it. Many a time local regulations make it obligatory for the buyer to have proforma invoice which forms the basis for obtaining an import license and/or an exchange permit.

The proforma invoice would normally show the terms of trade and prices. The buyer is encouraged to fill in the quantity and total amount which is treated as an ‘offer to buy’ or ‘tender’. This, when accepted by the seller, forms a firm sale contract. In other words, proforma invoice is the simplest form of a sale contract.

Accepted proforma invoice is conclusive evidence of the terms agreed upon. Details from this are transposed verbatim to the commercial invoice in due course when goods are ready for delivery. Often the seller is required to certify on the commercial invoice that goods are in accordance with the proforma invoice no….dated….

Proforma invoices are also used in the following situations where settlement is not directly linked to the movement of goods e.g:

1. Advance payment i.e. before shipment of goods

2. Consignment sales; goods are exported to an agent who concludes firm sale contracts with the buyers and renders account of these sales to exporter from time to time. Proforma invoice acts as a guide for prices to be obtained from the buyers

3. Tender sales; proforma invoice is used to support a tender for a sale contract.

Nomination Without Obligation

The word ‘available’ as used in LC operations, ranks high on the list of terms that confuse exporters. An LC should clearly specify how it is available; by sight payment, deferred payment, acceptance or negotiation [article 6(b), UCP 600]. It is preferable for exporters that LCs be advised available with a local bank, or at least with a bank in the exporter’s own country. For instance, if the LC is available at the counters of a local advising bank by sight payment, deferred payment, acceptance, where confirmation is added, then the exporter will, in the normal course of events, receive payment or have a bank acceptance or a deferred payment commitment a few days after presenting documents complying with the terms of the LC. Such commitments are definitive and without recourse to the exporter. However, if LC is not confirmed, such advising bank may decide not to pay, accept or issue a deferred payment commitment at the time documents are presented, even if they are presented in order [article 12, UCP 600]. There can be many reasons for this, but the most common is that the advising bank where the LC is available is not satisfied with the bank risk or country risk.

If on the other hand, the LC was confirmed, such advising/confirming bank would have no option but to take up documents which comply with the terms and conditions of the LC and honour its commitment to the exporter.

Negotiation deserves a special mention. Negotiation is a term which regularly confuses exporters and perhaps even some bankers. If an LC is available by negotiation with an advising bank and not confirmed, that bank has the option to pay to the exporter, remit the documents and claim payment from the issuing bank. The exporter must realize that the final decision as to whether or not documents meet the terms and conditions of the LC, and consequently as regards payment, rests with the issuing bank. The negotiating bank will request repayment from the beneficiary (with interest) if payment is not received from the issuing bank. Negotiation without confirmation is with recourse.

An LC available by negotiation and confirmed by the negotiating bank means that the negotiating bank has no option but to negotiate documents presented complying with the terms and conditions of the LC. Such negotiation under a confirmed LC is without recourse. Where an LC is only available by negotiation and not confirmed, many banks which have been nominated as negotiating banks are not prepared to take the risk of paying the exporter for fear they may not get reimbursed. Exporter should appreciate the service provided by a bank when it negotiates documents, and also understand why a bank is not always prepared to negotiate.

Transport Document

Most of the discrepancies discovered in LC operations are associated with the transport document. It is largely because LC stipulates a type of document which is not appropriate to the mode or modes of carriage which will be used. Some traders, particularly new traders, are not well versed with what transport document to follow with which trade term. Terms such as FOB, CFR and CIF are only meant for carriage by sea or waterway only where Bill of Lading or Non-Negotiable Seaway Bill should be stipulated in the LC. Terms such as Ex-work, FAS, CIP, CPT and etc where one mode of transport are used should be followed with a multimodal transport document.

Generally, the details on the transport document should include the following information:
1. An indication that it has been issued by a ‘named carrier or his agent’
2. A description of the goods in general terms not conflicting with description in the LC
3. Identifying marks and numbers
4. The name of the carrying vessel in the case of a Marne Bill of Lading, or the name of the intended carrying vessel in the case of a multimodal transport document including sea transport
5. An indication of dispatch or taking in charge of the goods or loading on board, as the case may be
6. An indication of the place of such dispatch or taking in charge or loading on board and the place of final destination
7. The name of shipper, consignee (if not made out ‘to order’) and the name and address of any ‘notify’ party
8. Whether freight has been paid or still to be paid
9. The number of originals issued to the consignor if issued in more than one original
10. Date of issuance of the transport document

The date of issuance of the transport document is very important and critical, firstly, to show whether the goods have been shipped in time, if the LC stipulates a latest date for shipment.

Secondly, it is important to meet the requirement that the documents must be presented for payment, acceptance or negotiation, as the case may be, within the validity of the LC and within 21 days from the date of issuance of the transport document unless the LC stipulates some other period of time.

Another importance is to determine the acceptability of the insurance document which, unless otherwise stipulated in the LC, or unless it appears it appears from the insurance document that the cover is effective at the latest from the date of shipment of the goods, must be dated not later than such date of shipment (loading on board or dispatch or taking in charge).

Traders are also to scrutinize and ensure that if a transport document bears a superimposed clause or notation which expressly declares a defective condition of the goods and/or the packaging, it will not be acceptable unless acceptance of such clause is authorized in the LC. A transport document specifically stating that the goods are or will be loaded on deck is also not acceptable unless expressly authorized in the LC.

Scope of Cargo Insurance Coverage

The type of coverage that the insured can obtain ranges from the minimum cover provided by the basic policy commonly termed as S.G. Policy (Ships and Goods Policy) to the maximum protection of “All risks whatsoever”. The S.G. Policy covers the loss or damage to goods (total or partial) arising from the perils of the sea. As the goods in transit are exposed to other extraneous perils such as theft, pilferage, leakage, shortages, etc, the scope of the cover provided under the S.G. policy has to be enlarged by introducing a number of Institute Cargo Clauses (ICC) such as Free from Particular Average (FPA), With Average (WA) and All Risks (AR). Furthermore, certain types of cargo require special clauses, commonly termed as trade clauses e.g., Rubber Clause, Raw Sugar Clause and Timber Trade Federation Clause.

The All Risks Clause provides coverage for all perils, excluding losses or expenses proximately caused by delay, inherent vice or nature of the cargo. The coverage for shipments by air is as per the Institute Air Cargo Clauses (All Risks) (excluding sendings by post), which differs from the other clauses to cater for the particular need by the mode of transport. The important things to note is that these clauses are so designed as to provide cover supplemental to the basic cargo insurance policy (S.G. Policy).

It should be pointed out that due to difficulties encountered by the commerce and trade in the interpretation of the archaic wordings of the S.G. Policy, the Lloyd’s Underwriters Association, in consultation with the Institute of London Underwriters and other interested parties, has replaced the S.G. policy with a simple document and a corresponding set of a new Institute Cargo Clauses – ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ in place of ‘All Risks’, W.A. and F.P.A. Clauses.

Clause A covers all risks of loss or damage to the assured matter subject to the following exclusion:

Willful misconduct of the Assured; ordinary leakage, loss in weight or volume, wear and tear; unsuitable packing; inherent vice; delay; insolvency or financial default of owners, managers, charterers or operators of vessel; atomic weapons of war and radioactivity.

Clause B covers loss or damage to the assured matter reasonably attributable to the following risks:

Fire; explosion; stranding; sinking; grounding; overturning; derailment of land conveyance; collision or contact of vessel with any external object other than water; discharge of cargo a t pot of distress; general average sacrifice; jettison; washing overboard; entry of sea, lake or river water into vessel, craft, hold, conveyance, lift van or place of storage; total loss of package lost overboard or dropped during loading or unloading; and earthquake, volcanic eruption or lightning.

The exclusions under B clause are similar to those of Clause A with the addition of deliberate damage to or destruction of assured matter.

Clause C covers loss or damage to the assured matter reasonably attributable to the following risks:

Fire; explosion; stranding; grounding; capsizing of vessel; overturning; derailment of land conveyance; collision or contact of vessel with any object other than water; discharge of cargo at port of distress; general average sacrifice; and jettison.

The exclusions under C clause are identical to those of Clause B. In addition, the losses arising from the following risks are not covered:

1. Earthquake, volcanic eruption or lightning
2. Washing overboard
3. Sea, lake or river water damage
4. Total loss of any package lost overboard or dropped whilst loading on to or unloading from vessel.

The loss or damage caused by war and strikes, riots and civil commotion (SRCC) is also excluded under all the three clauses mentioned above. However, traders can obtain cover against losses arising from war and SRCC risks on payment of an additional premium.

It is important to remember that war risks are covered only when the cargo is water-borne that is it is not in force whilst the cargo is on land. The cover starts only when the cargo is loaded on board the vessel and ceases as soon as it is discharged from the vessel at the final port or after the expiry of 15 days counting from the midnight of the day of arrival of the vessel at the final port of discharge, whichever is earlier.